Silke Morkel

Women of Nepal

Photographs 2000 - 2004

Discovering Nepal - a Personal Approach

"Liebe geht durch den Magen!" (German proverb)

When I first travelled to Nepal on a university field trip in October 2000, I did not know I would keep coming back there almost every year. I got on this field trip purely by chance, the only thing I knew about Nepal by the time was that it was somewhere close to India and that the famous Himalayas including Mount Everest (or Sagarmatha in Nepali) can be found there. What really worried me about the trip was the fact that rice is the main dish in Asia, and I knew for sure that rice wasn't my favourite meal!

However, after spending some time in Mustang District doing research on apple trees (see Apple Farming in Marpha), I had to give up my prejudices on the food situation: in the tourist hotels of Jomosom, Marpha, Muktinath, Kagbeni, etc. I managed to get some of my all-time-favourites like tacos, enchiladas, lasagna, even pizza! Also, I found out that some local recipes likes momos (dumplings filled with yak or buffalo meat as well as mutton or vegetables) accompanied by a good glass of freshly brewed chyang bear a certain attraction to the sophisticated western tongue. Not to mention the food in the capital where the highly insensitive and ignorant visitor can even find a juicy beef steak...

One year later, in September 2001, I got another chance to leave for Nepal to collect data for my diploma thesis on Migration of the Thakali. Thus, I got back to Marpha, where I spent enough time to find out that eating fresh mountain mushrooms can cause digestive trouble...

In July 2003, the idea to do research on women's migration and mobility as well as my love for Nepal (and my intense starving for momos), brought me again to the Hindu kingdom. Though I had already planned to continue my research on Marpha (where I could use my old data as a basis), I decided to include districts in other ecological belts (compare map), which brought me to Madhwaliya VDC* (situated about 3 hours from Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Buddha) in Rupandehi District and later to Pumdibhumdi VDC in Kaski District.

In March 2004 I went for a fourth time to round up my data and to do research in some new districts in the eastern parts of the country where I had not been so far. I started in Kumarkhod VDC in Jhapa District and then made my way north to misty Barbote VDC in Ilam District. In Barbote, I had to change my initial plan to visit Taplejung District in the Eastern Mountains when my translator Swechha and I were warned to travel further due to the presence of maoist insurgents in the region. Back to Kathmandu, I decided to include Solukhumbu District in my data collection, where I went to Jubing VDC and finally - on my flight to Lukla - got a view of Mount Everest!

I would like to express my gratitude to the people who made all this possible, first of all Prof. Haffner and PD Dr. Perdita Pohle of Giessen University, my friends in Nepal who made me enjoy every single visit and last but not least the women I interviewed and their families!

*)VDC = Village Development Community, administrational unit in Nepal which consists of nine so-called wards

The Women: Farmwives, Businesswomen, Students, Housemaids

During my visits to Nepal I met women of all ages and social and cultural backgrounds. Some were students or schoolchildren dreaming of an adventurous life as a pop singer in Western countries, others were housewives who never went to school but did everything for the education of their children. Some only knew their paddy fields and never heard of the neighbouring or far-away districts or countries, others had already gone abroad to Japan, Hongkong or the Gulf states for foreign labour and brought back hard-earned money for their parents, husbands and children. Some had fled to Nepal from Tibet and stayed in refugee camps, others grew up in rich old families with a high status in their village and sometimes - as a member of powerful ethnic groups or castes - throughout the country. Some ran hotels or restaurants while their husbands had gone to the cities or to foreign countries, others spent their time cooking rice, collecting wood and cutting grass for their family. Some were Hindus, others believed in Buddhism, few in Christianity, Islam or other religions, usually in accordance with their family and society, sometimes against all odds.

All these women had one thing in common: they were born in a country that is currently undergoing severe social, cultural and political changes, and they all have to make a living somehow, either alone or with and for their families.

Geography, Culture, and Politics of Nepal

Nepal is a country full of cultural and geographical differences. According to the last population census, there are more than 100 ethnic resp. caste groups and at least 92 languages (not including the "unknown" languages). The majority of people are Hindu (80%) and a substantial number are Buddhist (10 %). Additionally, there are many followers of Kirat, Islam and an increasing number of Christians (CBS 2003).

In its northern parts, Nepal is dominated by high mountains, the Himalayas (see small map Ecological Zones). The Himalayas are traditionally inhabited by Buddhist peoples such as the famous Sherpa from Solukhumbu who got a reputation as strong climbers in high altitudes. They still accompany the groups who ascend Mount Everest every year in May, help them carrying oxygene and other materials and are preparing the routes to the summit.
Another ethnic mountain group are the Thakali who became rich and influential as traders. They originate from a small area in Mustang District and can now - though still small in number - be found all over the country, doing business and making politics. The Nepalese as well as foreigners appreciate their hotels and restaurants: the sign "Thakali kitchen" is always a guarantee for hospitality and excellent food!
The mountain region seems nice and developed in the tourist areas of Mustang, Manang, Solukhumbu and other districts. Though most of the places are only accessible by a some-days-walk or small planes (with a high incidence of plane crashes!), the infrastructure here is surprisingly good: people profit from phonelines, electricity and even cable TV, and luxury items like DVD-players and washing machines can be found in some of the better-off households. Contrary to these places of attraction, one finds virtually nothing in "normal" mountain villages. As a result, the maoist revolt started from remote mountain places in the far western and eastern regions of the country.

The biggest part of Nepal consists of the Middle Hills, whose inhabitants mainly belong to Hindu castes like Brahmins (bahun in Nepalese, who are the majority in hill districts like Ilam), Chhetris and the "untouchable" Dalits.
Due to their high status in the caste system (which has been abolished officially), Brahmins and Chhetris rule the country. They occupy most Government positions, be it in the ministries, as teachers or just in the post office. Traditionally, Brahmins are the only ones who can become Hindu priests. The Chhetris are as well known as the "warrior caste". The Dalits are at the lower end of the caste system; they are usually named according to their occupations like tailors (domai), black-, gold- or silversmiths (kami etc.), cobblers (sarki), musicians, etc. Even today they are not allowed in Hindu temples or in the kitchen of a higher caste household.
Ethnic hill groups high in number are the Gurung (the world-famous Gurkha soldiers, which can be found in distrcits like Kaski), Rai, Limbu, Newar (who originally dominated the Kathmandu valley) and the potatoe-loving Magar. Whereas the majority of the Newar follows Hinduism, the Gurung and Magar are mostly Buddhist. The Rai and Limbu believe in Kirat which is described as "some form of animistic tradition, a faith closely tied with supernaturals" (CBS 2003).

Although the Terai makes only 23 % of the country's total area, almost half of the population has settled in this region nowadays. Originally the flat parts of Nepal where occupied by the Tharu (eg found in Rupandehi District) and other Terai castes like the Sattar (eg in Jhapa District) who can easily be recognised by their tatoos and their dark looks.
Starting from the 1960s, the dense forests ot the Terai were cleared and Malaria eradication programs were carried out. Settlers came from the hills and mountains of Nepal as well as from India. Cities and industries have been growing since. Though most of the Nepalese praise the "easy life" of the Terai, its inhabitants still complain about its hot climate.

Nepal is the only Hindu kingdom in the world and famous for its natural as well as cultural attractions like the Himalayan mountain range and its ancient (and modern) temples, stupas and monasteries which can be found in the Kathmandu valley and all over the country. Birthplace of Lord Buddha, Nepal is one of the least developed countries in the world nowadays: the yearly per capita GDP was only an estimated 236 USD in 2001/02 (CBS 2002).
In the 1990s, Nepal was on its way to become a modern democracy, when the maoist revolt started in some of the remoter and extremely underdeveloped regions. Not a major problem in the beginning, the insurgents have become much stronger in the last years, especially after the tragedy in the royal palace of 2001, when the late king Birendra and his family were murdered by the king's oldest son. Today, maoists can be found all over the country, blackmailing people, forcibly recruiting their children, destroying the infrastructure (eg phone towers, Government offices, roads and vehicles), calling for nationwide close-ups (bandhs) and killing politicians, policemen and soldiers.
More and more young people are leaving the countryside in fear of the maoists. This has led to increased rural-urban migration as well as labour migration to foreign countries. Nowadays heavily discussed in the media of Nepal as a "result" of female migration is the boom of "cabin restaurants" in Kathmandu, where young migrant girls sell more than rakshi (the local liqueur) and other drinks, as well as the trade of Nepalese girls and women to the brothels of Calcutta and Bombay.

The areas visited

To collect data for my thesis on women's migration, I visited small VDCs in the map's highlighted areas Mustang, Kaski and Rupandehi in the Western Development Region as well as Solukhumbu, Ilam and Jhapa in the Eastern Development Region. Criteria for selection were a) their location in different ecological belts and b) their easy accessibility in the slightly more developed Western and Eastern Development Region. Another criteria, c) was that none of the selected districts is a maoist stronghold (which was a bit hard to judge in spring 2004, as maoist activities were increasing throughout the country).

Marpha, Mustang District

Marpha is one of the stops on the famous Annapurna Circuit. It is situated in the Kali Gandaki Valley in an altitude of about 2.700 m. The "Capital of Apples" is an ideal place for growing fruit trees, though transporting the harvest to the bigger markets of Pokhara and Kathmandu is difficult and expensive. However, most of Marpha's income depends heavily on tourism. Currently decreasing tourist numbers thus put the village economy in danger.

The original Marphalis are Thakali, an ethnic group of traders. Some years back, most men were involved in the salt trade between Tibet and India, and their women used to run bhattis (tea shops) along the route. The Thakali are still very mobile people, and due to previous migrations and a very cold winter climate, an exodus takes place every year from December to February, when whole families move to their relatives houses in Nepal's big cities.

Pumdibhumdi, Kaski District

In the neighbourhood of Pokhara, a booming city with more then 150.000 inhabitants, Pumdibhumdi reaches from the shore of Fewa Lake (750 m altitude) up to hill tops of 1.200 m. Either by boat or by bus, it does not take more than 1 hour to get to Pokhara, so most of the young Brahmins and Chhetris go to college in the city.

Although soils are not too fertile in Pumdibhumdi, people are growing rice, corn, millet, wheat and vegetables on their terraced fields. Especially among the Gurung men, there is a tradition of serving as a Gurkha soldier in the British army which is why most households profit from remittances and pensions.

Madhwaliya, Rupandehi District

On the highway between Butwal und Bhairahawa (which is less known under its official name Siddhartanagar), Madhwaliya is inhabited by the Tharu people, the original Terai dwellers of the central region, and a very heterogenous group of migrants both from India and Nepal, composed of all castes, religions and backgrounds.

Land is vast and job opportunities are good, so the dream of an "easy life in the flatlands" seems to have come true for most of the settlers. Factories in Madhwaliya and the neighbouring VDCs produce everything from cookies to rubber and entertain trade relations throughout the country. Transport facilities are good, it takes less than one hour to get to India and only 15 minutes to Butwal on the East-West highway.

Jubing, Solukhumbu District

The small settlements and villages of Jubing are scattered along the main trail between Jiri and Namche Bazaar. 30 km southwest of Mt. Everest, the area stretches between altitudes of 2.000 and 3.000 metres "only". Transport is difficult and agricultural land is scarce. Though the majority of people owns small farms, many make additional incomes as porters and trekking guides or by running a tourist lodge.

The VDC is inhabited by the world famous Sherpa as well as Rai, Magar and some Tamang and Dalit people. Most hotels are run by Sherpa families; during the spring season the women are usually on their own as their husbands join foreign groups on their ascent of Mt. Everest. New hotels are still being built, but tourist numbers in Jubing have gone down due to increasing numbers of Maoist insurgents in the southern part of Solukhumbu District.

Barbote VDC, Ilam District

Barbote is located on the main road between Ilam Municipality and Phidim (Paanchthar District) on an average altitude of 1.500 m. To Ilam M.P. it takes only half an hour; jeeps are running all day long from the main market place Biblate. Here plenty of small shops are selling everything from betel nuts to fabrics, some small restaurants and two (Nepali*) hotels.

Most of Barbote's inhabitants are Brahmin, Chhetri, Limbu and Rai and make a living from farming. For subsistence they grow corn, potatoes, vegetables and rice. Some peole grow tea and sell it to the factory in the neighbouring VDC Maipokhari. Others sell bamboo and cardamom in the local market or in Ilam. Cowmilk is collected by a central cooperative and sold to Biratnagar in Morang District.

*) Nepali hotels are hotels with a main income as a tea house or small restaurant. Occasionally, porters or locals stay in these hotels, they are not meant for foreigners (eg gora = white men)

Kumarkhod, Jhapa District

Kumarkhod is situated two bus-hours off the East-West highway between Birtamod and Damak. Directly at the Indian border, people prefer to do their shopping in Digalbank on the Indian side. Crossing the border is easy for citizens of the two neighbouring countries as there is only one small border post, and the smuggling of goods is a common problem.

As industrial production and trade takes place in the big cities, most people in Kumarkhod live from subsistence farming or work as labourers in one of the big tea gardens. More than two thirds of the households get remittances from family members working in Kathmandu, India or other countries. Since the maoists destroyed the telephone line in 2003, it has become hard for the inhabitants of Kumarkhod to stay in touch with there migrated relatives.

Sources

• CBS, 2002: Statistical Pocket Book Nepal 2002. Ramshah Path, Kathmandu, 2002.

• CBS, 2003: Population Monograph of Nepal. Volume 1. Ramshah Path, Kathmandu, 2003.